6th DEC 1962 INDIA CLOSED CONSULATE IN CHINA
consulate general in Lhasa
April 25, 2014 10:10 IST
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Claude Arpi/Rediff.com
Note that in 1961 already, the Chinese were putting pressure on India to reduce the activities of the consulate, particularly trade.
Personal DO (Demi-official letter)
P N Kaul, IFSA (Indian Frontier Administrative Service)
Consul General
Lhasa, Tibet
To Shri A R Deo
Consul General Nominate
Camp Mumbai
September 15, 1961
I was informed by the ministry a month ago of your posting here as my replacement. I expected a communication from you for seeking clarifications on any minute details, but did not hear from you -- obviously because you are on leave. Yesterday's (diplomatic) bag (incidentally the bag comes here on every 4th, 14th and 24th of the month from Gangtok) brought in a few notifications regarding you from which I learnt your leave address.
You must personally have gone through the latest note on living conditions in Lhasa; I enclose a copy to be on the safe side. The note deals with most aspects. There are a few things, however, which you personally may be interested to be informed about:
a. The work here is very little indeed since March 1959. Social life outside our consulate general is nil; there being the Chinese foreign bureau and the royal Nepalese consulate general with whom you have only occasional formal social contacts. The new Nepalese consul general, Yak Thumba, arrived a week back and has been ill ever since -- he is, however, recovering fast.
b. We have clerical staff of one Sikkimese head clerk (local rank of vice consul), two Sikkim-based clerks, one Kalimpong boy as Tibetan translator-cum-librarian, one Sikkim-based wireless operator, one cypher assistant from Delhi and another assistant from Delhi just posted in replacement who functions as confidential assistant-cum PA; he also knows some Chinese having been a student in Peking for three years on a scholarship.
Besides there we have one assistant civil surgeon as our medical officer. All the above staff until recently had their families with them but the new vice consul and the newly posted assistant from Delhi are without their families here at present.
My only worthwhile recreation has been sporting in a mediocre game of tennis with my staff in the evening. There is no Indian community in Lhasa.
c. The staff and the local class IV servants are not overworked. Until recently I had an Indian personal bearer-cum-cook with me, but I was compelled to send him back as he created problems! I have since been able to easily to cope with one Gurkha class IV as my cook on payments during off hours, there being hardly much entertainment to outsiders. He is a reasonably fair cook, but has no knowledge of cooking of south and west Indian dishes.
One of the class IV, since I sent away my own servant, has been doing my bearer in spare time on payment. A personal bearer or a bearer-cum-cook would however, be useful but the snag is that they remain idle most of the time.
In the balance it would be worthwhile having one Indian servant with you. Please treat this as purely personal informal advice.
d. You do not need to bring any furniture or crockery with you. Rice (inferior), atta, Dalda, sugar, etc, it is advisable to purchase and dispatch from Gangtok itself and the shopkeepers do all the needful. Fine rice, papads, pickles and the like should be brought with you from India. Electricity is available here since two years and pressure cookers, heaters, firewood stoves, (bukkaries) are available in the consulate; you need to bring one electric iron for your use.
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Image: S Sinha, second left, head of the Indian Mission from 1950 to 1952 before it was downgraded, with officials of the Tibetan government in Lhasa.
Photographs: The National Archives of India
India can open consulate in Lhasa: Chinese official
Last Updated: Tuesday, August 25, 2009 - 15:47
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Lhasa: More than 40 years after bad blood between India and China closed down the Indian consulate in Tibetan capital Lhasa, a Chinese Foreign Ministry official says New Delhi can re-open it any time it wants.
"India can set up a consulate in Lhasa," said Jujian Hua, director at Tibet`s Foreign Affairs Office. "That depends on India."
With the 13th round of border talks between India and China resuming in New Delhi earlier this month, Beijing is emphasising that it wants improved relations with its southern neighbour.
"The (resumption of) cross-border talks between China and India represent a great step in the relationship between the two countries," Jujian said.
"The two governments started communication several years ago in terms of trade and culture. The local government (of Tibet) has attached great importance to trade, culture and tradition (exchanges), including tourism."
According to him, tourism has greatly increased with more than 12,000 Indian pilgrims visiting Tibet this year to circumambulate Mt Kailash, the 6,638m Himalayan peak in Tibet`s Nari province that is venerated by Hindus, Buddhists and Jains alike.
"Deepening the bilateral relationship really depends on India," the official said.
"Between friends, we should communicate more so that our relationship is strengthened. The central government of China and the Tibet Autonomous Region have a very positive attitude."
However, the official rued that New Delhi has several times refused visa to Chinese delegates.
"Several trade and cultural delegations (headed for India) didn`t get visas," he said.
According to him, even a month ago, a trade delegation headed by the Vice-Governor of Tibet was refused visa by the Indian authorities.
Though officials stop short of spelling it out, the major irritant in India-China ties is the presence of the Dalai Lama and his `government-in-exile` in India`s Dharamsala town.
China officially calls the exiled former ruler of Tibet a separatist and his `government` illegal and it is clear that exchanges between the two governments could improve remarkably if India closes down the `government-in-exile`, just as Nepal closed the office of the Dalai Lama`s envoy in Kathmandu four years ago.
"The `government-in-exile` is not in line with international laws," says Angpu Gejyuan, vice-director of the Religion and Nationalities Committee.
"No government admits such exiled governments. China and India are two ancient civilisations. We want the Indian government to do that which benefits the relationship and friendship between the two countries."
The Indian consulate in Lhasa was closed following the tumult in Tibet beginning from the 1950s after China annexed the former Buddhist kingdom and the 14th Dalai Lama fled to India following a failed uprising in 1959.
Three years later, China attacked India and the Indian consulate in Lhasa was closed.
At present, Nepal is the only country to be allowed a consulate in Lhasa, the Forbidden City. Though there have been rapid changes in Nepal`s own political scenario, its successive governments, though diverse, have upheld the same foreign policy that considers Tibet, along with Taiwan, to be an integral and inalienable part of China.
As memories of the 1962 war faded, India was allowed to open a consulate in Shanghai last year besides the embassy in Beijing, and then Indian External Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee inaugurated a second consulate at Guangzhou, a diplomatic concession for which India in turn gave China permission to re-open the Chinese Consulate in Kolkata that had been closed after the 1962 war.
Besides India, the US is also seeking to open a consulate in Lhasa. In May, the Foreign Affairs Committee at the US House of Representatives passed a bill authorising the Secretary of State to establish a consulate in Lhasa.
US President Barack Obama will visit China in November when he is expected to push for the new consulate.
IANS
First Published: Tuesday, August 25, 2009 - 15:47
Sino-Indian War
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Indo-Chinese War" redirects here. For the conflict in Indochina against the French, see First Indochina War.
| Sino-Indian War | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
.svg) The Sino-Indian War was fought between India and China | |||||||||
| |||||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||||
 India |  China | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
| Brij Mohan Kaul Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Jawaharlal Nehru V. K. Krishna Menon General Pran Nath Thapar | Luo Ruiqing (chief of PLA staff)[2] Zhang Guohua (field commander)[3] Mao Zedong Liu Bocheng Lin Biao Zhou Enlai | ||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
| 10,000–12,000 | 80,000[4][5] | ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| 1,383 killed[6] 1,047 wounded[6] 1,696 missing[6] 3,968 captured[6] | 722 killed[6] 1,697 wounded[6][7] | ||||||||
The Sino-Indian War (Hindi: भारत-चीन युद्ध Bhārat-Chīn Yuddh), also known as the Sino-Indian Border Conflict (simplified Chinese: 中印边境战争; traditional Chinese: 中印邊境戰爭; pinyin: Zhōng-Yìn Biānjìng Zhànzhēng), was a war between China and India that occurred in 1962. A disputed Himalayan border was the main pretext for war, but other issues played a role. There had been a series of violent border incidents after the 1959 Tibetan uprising, when India had granted asylum to the Dalai Lama. India initiated a Forward Policy in which it placed outposts along the border, including several north of the McMahon Line, the eastern portion of a Line of Actual Control proclaimed by Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai in 1959.
Unable to reach political accommodation on disputed territory along the 3,225-kilometre-long Himalayan border,[8] the Chinese launched simultaneous offensives in Ladakh and across the McMahon Line on 20 October 1962. Chinese troops advanced over Indian forces in both theatres, capturing Rezang la in Chushul in the western theatre, as well as Tawang in the eastern theatre. The war ended when the Chinese declared a ceasefire on 20 November 1962, and simultaneously announced its withdrawal from the disputed area.
The Sino-Indian War is notable for the harsh mountain conditions under which much of the fighting took place, entailing large-scale combat at altitudes of over 4,000 metres (14,000 feet).[9] The Sino-Indian War was also noted for the non-deployment of the navy or air force by either the Chinese or Indian side.
Contents
[hide]- 1Location
- 2Background
- 3Events leading up to war
- 4Confrontation at Thag La
- 5Chinese and Indian preparations
- 6Chinese offensive
- 7Lull in the fighting
- 8Continuation of war
- 9Ceasefire
- 10World opinion
- 11Involvement of other nations
- 12Aftermath
- 13Later conflicts
- 14Diplomatic process
- 15In popular culture
- 16See also
- 17Further reading
- 18References
- 19External links
Location
China and India shared a long border, sectioned into three stretches by Nepal, Sikkim (then an Indian protectorate), and Bhutan, which follows the Himalayas between Burma and what was then West Pakistan. A number of disputed regions lie along this border. At its western end is the Aksai Chin region, an area the size of Switzerland, that sits between the Chinese autonomous region of Xinjiang and Tibet (which China declared as an autonomous region in 1965). The eastern border, between Burma and Bhutan, comprises the present Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh (formerly the North East Frontier Agency). Both of these regions were overrun by China in the 1962 conflict.
Most combat took place at high altitudes. The Aksai Chin region is a desert of salt flats around 5,000 metres above sea level, and Arunachal Pradesh is mountainous with a number of peaks exceeding 7000 metres. The Chinese Army had possession of one of the highest ridges in the regions. The high altitude and freezing conditions also cause logistical and welfare difficulties; in past similar conflicts (such as the Italian Campaign of World War I) more casualties have been caused by the harsh conditions than enemy action. The Sino-Indian War was no different, with many troops on both sides dying in the freezing cold.[10]
Background
Main articles: Sino-Indian relations and Sino-Indian border dispute
The cause of the war was a dispute over the sovereignty of the widely separated Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh border regions. Aksai Chin, claimed by India to belong to Kashmir and by China to be part of Xinjiang, contains an important road link that connects the Chinese regions of Tibet and Xinjiang. China's construction of this road was one of the triggers of the conflict.
Aksai Chin
See also: Macartney-MacDonald Line
The western portion of the Sino-Indian boundary originated in 1834, with the Sikh Confederacy's conquest of Ladakh. In 1842, the Sikh Confederacy, which at the time ruled over much of Northern India (including the frontier regions of Jammu and Kashmir), signed a treaty which guaranteed the integrity of its existing borders with its neighbours.[11] The British defeat of the Sikhs in 1846 resulted in transfer of sovereignty over Ladakh, part of the Jammu and Kashmir region, to the British, and British commissioners contacted Chinese officials to negotiate the border. The boundaries at its two extremities, Pangong Lake and Karakoram Pass, were well defined, but the Aksai Chin area in between lay undefined.[12]
W. H. Johnson, a civil servant with the Survey of India, proposed the "Johnson Line" in 1865, which put Aksai Chin in Kashmir.[13] Johnson presented this line to the Maharaja of Kashmir, who then claimed the 18,000 square kilometres contained within.[13] Johnson's work was severely criticized as inaccurate. His boundary line was described as "patently absurd", and extending further north than the Indian claim.[9] Johnson was reprimanded by the British Government for crossing into Khotan without permission and resigned from the Survey.[9][13][14] The Maharajah of Kashmir constructed a fort at Shahidulla (modern-day Xaidulla), and had troops stationed there for some years to protect caravans.[15] According to Francis Younghusband, who explored the region in the late 1880s, there was only an abandoned fort and not one inhabited house at Shahidulla when he was there - it was just a convenient staging post for the nomadic Kirghiz.[16] The abandoned fort had apparently been built a few years earlier by the Kashmiris.[17] In 1878 the Chinese had reconquered Xinjiang, and by 1890 they already had Shahidulla before the issue was decided.[13] By 1892, China had erected boundary markers at Karakoram Pass.[9]
In 1893, Hung Ta-chen, a senior Chinese official at Kashgar, handed a map of the boundary proposed by China to George Macartney, the British consul-general at Kashgar.[15] This boundary placed the Lingzi Tang plains, which are south of the Laktsang range, in India, and Aksai Chin proper, which is north of the Laktsang range, in China. Macartney agreed with the proposal and forwarded it to the British Indian government. The British presented this line, known as the Macartney-MacDonald line, to the Chinese in 1899 in a note by Sir Claude MacDonald.[9] In 1911 the Xinhai Revolution resulted in power shifts in China, and by the end of World War I, the British officially used the Johnson Line. However they took no steps to establish outposts or assert actual control on the ground.[9][13] According to Neville Maxwell, the British had used as many as 11 different boundary lines in the region, as their claims shifted with the political situation.[18] From 1917 to 1933, the "Postal Atlas of China", published by the Government of China in Peking had shown the boundary in Aksai Chin as per the Johnson line, which runs along the Kunlun mountains.[15][19] The "Peking University Atlas", published in 1925, also put the Aksai Chin in India.[20]:101 Upon independence in 1947, the government of India used the Johnson Line as the basis for its official boundary in the west, which included the Aksai Chin.[9] On 1 July 1954, India's first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru definitively stated the Indian position,[14] claiming that Aksai Chin had been part of the Indian Ladakh region for centuries, and that the border (as defined by the Johnson Line) was non-negotiable.[21] According to George N. Patterson, when the Indian government finally produced a report detailing the alleged proof of India's claims to the disputed area, "the quality of the Indian evidence was very poor, including some very dubious sources indeed".[22]:275
In 1956–57, China constructed a road through Aksai Chin, connecting Xinjiang and Tibet, which ran south of the Johnson Line in many places.[9][13][21] Aksai Chin was easily accessible to the Chinese, but access from India, which meant negotiating the Karakoram mountains, was much more difficult.[21] The road came on Chinese maps published in 1958.[3]
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